Key Benefits And Limitations Of LCA Environmental Sciences Essay

Key Benefits And Limitations Of LCA Environmental Sciences Essay Major benefits can arise from LCA. Through the ability to analyses exchanges that take place in the environment, it enables decision-makers to select the product or process that result in the least impact to the environment. LCA data identifies the transfer of environmental impacts from one media to another and/or from one life cycle stage to another (EPA 2001). Quantification of emissions, detection of variation between the various life cycle phases, the ability to estimate environmental burden of materials, the ability to compare and contrast competing products and the potential to structure and improve the flow of data between stakeholders are just some of the obvious benefits that can be gained through adoption of LCA. Papers by Deloitte Enhancing the value of life cycle assessment and Lifecycle assessment: where is it on your sustainability agenda? provide an insight into several benefits from utilizing LCA, including (Deloitte, 2009): Innovation: Through revealing the source and magnitude of environmental impacts, product level LCA data can inform the innovation agenda. Cost savings: Clarity in relation to cost drivers can lead to increased efficiency via material and energy requirements minimizing the negative environmental impacts. Furthermore, certain investments in RD and projects related to renewable energy may be eligible for tax credits or other incentives. Internal alignment: LCA provides a common ground for internal goal-setting and communication. Different departments within an organization can unite on enterprise-wide priorities. Regulatory preparedness: LCA can help quantify the projected product cost implications of future carbon legislation and flag those areas that warrant immediate action. LCA can also enhance general transparency to deflect scrutiny from regulators and other stakeholders. Corporate reputation: LCA can demonstrate a companys deeper commitment to improved environmental impact. Improved sustainability claims can strengthen stakeholder relations. Risk reduction: LCA helps companies develop their position around environmental issues to which their operations contribute. Increases awareness of potential liabilities the company should be aware of. On top of these benefits examples of how customized LCA studies can support significant sustainability objectives include (Deloitte, 2012): Enhance brand value for competitive differentiation: Compares the environmental impact of an organizations product to alternatives to determine which benefits are distinguishable. Improve design decisions: Evaluates resource and materials use to inform product and process design decisions that increase environmental efficiencies. Make better procurement decisions: Engages multiple stakeholders and suppliers to allow organizations to make procurement decisions that significantly boost their sustainability efforts. Meet communications needs: Provides a platform for authentically communicating positive environmental attributes about products to buyers and consumers. Achieve compliance: Addresses regulatory mandates at local, national and international levels. Create better policies: Evaluates internal and external policies of the organization to determine realistic objectives. While all of the above benefits help paint a positive picture of LCA, one also has to consider the various disadvantages or limitations of such systems. As with all new and evolving systems there will always be significant teething problems during development. The more noteworthy of these include the fact LCAs utilizing the same and different methodologies can have vastly different results with assumptions, which can be subjective, being a requisite even for simple comparisons to be carried out. The validity of data is always a concern and whether the most up to date data has been used. Performing LCA is resource consuming and gathering data can be problematic. As a result, it is essential to weigh the resources needed against the projected benefits to measure feasibility. There is still no widely accepted standardised format for LCA, with most of the already existing ones such as ISO 14040 having several imperfections. Finally results of LCAs focused on national and regional level m ay not be suitable for local applications. These limitations do take some of the shine away from LCA and indicate that in essence at present LCA is fundamentally flawed given it can be near impossible in many cases to know the validity and relevance of conclusions drawn by the practitioner. While this may be true what has to be consider is that LCA is the best tool we have at present to tackle this significant area of concern. In reality the benefits of LCA far outreach its flaws and as transparency of methods and data becomes the norm its integrity will increase. What is for certain is LCA is set to become a fundamental element of product and service design. Applications and potential of LCA Applications of LCA The application of LCA has been well documented and includes supporting initiatives to assessing environmental impacts that need addressing. Studies (Frankl and Rubik, 1999; Frankl et al., 2000) have highlighted key areas of application including: Bottleneck identification Information and education to consumers and stakeholders Compare existing products with planned alternatives Compare existing company products with products of competitors Procurement specifications, supplier screening, product co-makership Internal information and training Anticipate and negotiate legislation Marketing, advertising policies joining eco-labelling criteria Environmental cost allocation Assess the gap from eco-label criteria Radical changes in product life cycle What can be taken from these findings is that there are three principle areas of application are; (1) comparison on an environmental basis which includes comparison of materials, methods and conformity. (2) In manufacturing LCA can be used to find the most ecological method through optimal material and processes selection. (3) In commercial development LCA can be used for marketing purposes and as a public informational aid (in example EPDs). In reality there are many different views among the scientific populace as to use and best practice for LCA. What is of interest is that one article by Grantadesigns in 2011 called Grantas new Guide: Five Steps to Eco Design proposed that up to 80% of the environmental footprint of a product is determined during the design phase. From this we must assume that the best application for LCA would be in the design phase via evaluation of design alternative. Potential of LCA LCA is a methodology for quantifying and assessing the potential impacts of goods and services from an environmental perspective. From this viewpoint it can be taken that LCA can be applied to any kind of product or decision where environmental impacts are of concern. This in turn implies LCA can be applied by all the different stakeholders who are invested in a product or service including governmental, non-governmental and industries. While this dissertation cannot elaborate on all the opportunities open to LCA, focus will be placed on the following areas which are of particular interest to this study: The potential of LCA at multinational corporation level The potential of LCA for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) The potential of LCA at governmental level The potential of LCA for multinational enterprises Multinational companies face important strategic decisions that help establish the direction of their environmental performance. The decision whether to adopt a global standard or not is one such decision. While specific characteristics of multinationals make the application of LCA easier including; dedicated resources made available, separate departments responsible for implementation and co-ordination, development of internal databases and operating methodologies, and the ability to influence stakeholders, among others; there are equally other factors which present significant challenges including; diverse cultural approaches and consensus on methodologies including weighting across impact categories (Schmidt and Sullivan, 2002; Reap et al., 2008), and how to integrate LCA across the whole organisation as LCA in general tend to be reserved to environmental departments. The value which can be extracted by large corporations who adopt LCA tends to be in terms of material choice, tech nology choice, infrastructure and location choice, and product and process improvement. The potential of LCA for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) While the need for environmental practices have been widely accepted in SMEs, as can be seen through the widespread adoption of ISO 14001, the adoption of LCA has being met with less enthusiasm. This is largely to do with the fact most SMEs need to focus their available resources on establishing their position in the market and cant afford to extend resources to non essential activities. However, many small and medium enterprises are now seen the economic benefits that can be reaped from LCA implementation via simplified low cost approaches. Significant advantages can be gained in the RD stage of products via material swap outs, process improvements or benchmarking (Hunkeler, 2003). One could even go as far as to say that LCA can be useful to improve credit terms as it improves resource allocation and minimises the risk of resources being spent inappropriately. The tangible benefits with regard to environmental business policy include (Hunkeler et al., 2004): reduced operating cost, improved resource efficiency, improved relations with authorities, improve external image, improved credit terms and reduced overheads. It is also worth noting that the addition of LCA will add value for firms in their IPO (initial public offering) as it will be recognised that the company will be more likely to be sustainable with future environmental requirements. The potential of LCA at governmental level The pattern to which goods and services are produced and consumed is established and controlled via government regulated frameworks and conditions. LCA falls within the reams of sustainable development and is of key importance in addressing waste and emissions attributes of products and services. Government activities are ongoing in regards to LCA with supporting strategies becoming widespread. This has led to the development of several nationally managed databases along with new methodologies and tools. Government bodies, including the departments of environment, energy and defence etc., are now active in supporting LCA development via conducting case studies and making data available. Websites have been developed and product orientated environmental policy is evolving, none more so than in the European Union (EU). In its Communication on Integrated Product Policy (COM (2003)302), the European Commission concluded that Life Cycle Assessments provide the best framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products currently available. There is an understanding within the EU for the need of life cycle thinking in stakeholder consultations and in policy implementation. There is an acknowledgment that information from LCA can support public policy making in eco-design criteria setting, such as contributing to performance targets within the Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP) and for energy-using products within the EuP Directive, in green public procurement (GPP), and in environmental product declarations (EPDs) (European commission, 2003). However, consideration has to be giving to the fact that LCA is only a decision supporting tool, and not a decision making tool. While advances aid its progression it is still limited with regards economic and social impacts, along with local environmental issues. As a result it can only be utilised in support of other tools to aid detection of potential improvement areas. Policies, Laws, Standards and Incentives Life-cycle analysis (LCA) is not a new phenomenon with scientists and manufacturers increasingly using it to expose opportunities to reduce environmental impacts of products and services, from cradle to grave. This has led to the rise of policies, legislation, standards and incentives in the race to control and maximise the potential of this rapidly expanding sector. Policies LCAs offer the opportunity to shift the traditional policy basis away from waste and resource amounts to one where the potential environmental impacts they cause is the focus and in so far as is feasible the related consequences to humans and the ecosystems is catered for. Laws While traditionally focus has been on reducing impacts of production processes, the responsibility is now being extended to manufacturers to reduce the impacts of products as well. This extension of manufacturers responsibility to cover the entire lifecycle of a product is known as Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). The EC Sixth Environmental Action Programme Environment 2010 emphasises the importance of product policy which is also reflected in the Integrated Product Policy. Standards The International Organization for Standardization introduced the ISO 9000 series quality management standards in 1987. These were later followed in 1992 by various environmental standards known as the ISO 14000 series. These voluntary standards require verification by an external certification body to obtain the ISO certificate. In the ISO 14000 series there is a family of standards to choose from, so when you want to get environmentally certified you need to consider which best matches your requirements. The point of note in relation to the ISO 14000 series is that it is generic, meaning any business, regardless of size or sector can apply. The following provides a brisk overview from a European perspective of the main policies, laws and standards where the life-cycle approach is emphasised as an important element. Table : Overview of relevant policy, law and standards (Developed with data from European commission and Irish department of environment) Designation Class Foundation Title Subject matter Policy Framing policy 06/2008 Sustainable Consumption and Production Action Plan, (SCP) This communication sets out the measures to deliver more sustainable consumption and production, while improving the competitiveness of the European economy. It builds on several EU policies including the renewed Sustainable Development Strategy. The Community Lisbon Programme for 2008-2010 includes the promotion of an industrial policy geared towards more sustainable consumption and production as one of its major orientations (European commission, 2008). Framing policy 12/2005 EUs thematic strategy on the sustainable use of natural resources The objective is to reduce environmental impacts linked to resource use in a growing economy enabling sustainable development (European commission, 2005a). A review carried out by the Bio Intelligence Service in 2010 indicates the integration of key concepts conveyed by the resource strategies have had a positive but partial influence with the clear need for clear objectives and targets, and the establishment of data centre for natural resources being highlighted (Mudgal et al., 2010). Framing policy 12/2005 EUs thematic strategy on prevention and recycling of waste Describes a number of key objectives as part of an evolving EU policy on waste including; Prevent waste, Promote re-use, recycling and recovery; and Establish the European recycling society. The aim of this strategy is to reduce the negative impact on the environment that is caused by waste throughout its life-span, from production to disposal, via recycling. The objective is that every item of waste is seen not only as a source of pollution but also a potential resource to be exploited (European commission, 2005b). Framing policy 06/2003 Communication Integrated Product Policy (IPP) Aims to support the realisation of environmental product innovations in order to achieve a broad reduction of all environmental impacts along a products life cycle (Commission, 2001). Due to the nature of products, IPP cannot consist of a single general policy instrument, a variety of measures must be employed to achieve the IPP objective (In example standards or so-called soft environmental policy instruments such as activities regarding voluntary agreements or environmental labelling.) (Rehfeld et al., 2007). European Commission, Integrated Product Policy Communication (IPP), 2003 states LCA is the best framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products, but the debate is ongoing about good practice with the European commission committing to; developing a handbook on best practice, Co-ordinating to make data more accessible and systematically collected, Regularly update directory of LCA databases, and develop a platform to facilitate communication and exchanges . All of the above commitments have or are in the process of being delivered. Specific instrument 2005 revised 2009 Eco-design directive Provides for improving the environmental performance of energy related products (ERPs) through ecodesign and prevents distinct national legislations on environmental performance becoming obstacles to the intra-EU trade. The ecodesign requirements must not lower the functionality of a product, its safety, or have a negative impact on its affordability or consumers health. The Directive is under the responsibility of DG Enterprise and Industry and DG Energy (European commission, 2012b). Specific instrument 2005 Energy-using products (EuP) Directive The main objective of the EuP Directive is to bring about improvements in energy efficiency throughout a products lifecycle, from cradle to grave. Its focuses on the design phase as it is considered that up to 80% of the environmental load of a product is fixed during design. EuP is a Framework Directive which outlines the legal context within which implementing measures will be developed and targeted at particular product groups (Premier Farnell, 2009). Specific instrument 1/2004 Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP) The plan covers a range of actions to promote eco-innovation and the take-up of environmental technologies including: promoting research and development, mobilising funds, helping to drive demand and improving market conditions. Information from LCAs can contributing to meeting performance targets within the Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP). In Ireland specific consideration will be given to projects that have the potential to address the three specific challenges identified in the Environmental Protection Agencys (EPA) State of the Environment Report 2004, namely: eutrophication of surface waters, meeting international commitments on air emissions and better management of waste (Department of the Environment, 2012a). Specific instrument 2008 Green public procurement (GPP) Defined in the Communication (COM (2008) 400) Public procurement for a better environment as a process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle when compared to goods, services and works with the same primary function that would otherwise be procured. The EU committed to aiming to achieve by 2010 a proposed a target of 50% of all the EUs public procurement tendering procedures to be green. Although this target has not been met a recent report monitoring the uptake of GPP found 26% of the last contracts signed in the 2009-2010 period by public authorities in the EU included all core GPP criteria with 55% of these contracts having at least one EU core GPP criterion, showing that some form of green procurement is being done at a large scale (European commission, 2012c). In Ireland the GPP national action plan has been developed to make half the estimated à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬15 billion in public spendi ng to meet green procurement criteria (Department of the Environment, 2012b). Specific instrument 2002 and Under review Environmental product declarations (EPDs) Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are life-cycle based ecolabels that disclose the environmental performance of the product, similar to nutrition information labels. In France a law was passed in 2007 the Grenelle Environment which requires environmental product declarations for all mass produced consumer goods. 2012 has seen experiments begin to establish best practice to implement this law. The European Commission is following suit and has begun a program to develop guidance on environmental product declarations indicating this will be widespread shortly. Specific Instument 1992 Eco-labelling Is in general a voluntary scheme where producers, importers and retailers can choose to apply for the label for their products. Ecolabel criteria focus on the stage / stages with the highest environmental impact during a products life cycle. By the end of 2011, more than 1,300 licences had been awarded, and at present, more than 17,000 products have the EU Ecolabel. A licence gives permission to use the EU Ecolabel logo. (European commission, 2012d). Laws Legal requirement 2003 Restriction on the use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS) Adopted in 2003 by the European Union the directive took effect in 2006 becoming law in each member state. It restricts the use of six hazardous materials in the manufacture of electronic and electrical equipment. It correlates with the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) 2002/96/EC which is part of a legislative initiative to reduce toxic e-waste. Legal requirement 2002 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) The WEEE Directive 2002/96/EC is an EU Directive founded on the principle of Producer Responsibility and its general objectives are to prevent waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and to improve the environmental performance of all operators involved in the life cycle of such including producers, distributors and consumers (European commission, 2012e). Legal requirement 2000 End of Life Vehicles Directive 2000/53/ EC of the European Parliament on end of life vehicles was developed to limit or exclude the presence of dangerous substances including lead, cadmium, chromium IV and mercury in vehicles with the purpose of minimising their environmental impact. In 2006, the target for reuse and recovery was a minimum of 85% of the materials rising to 95% in 2015 with most major OEMs such as Ford, Honda etc on the way to meeting these targets. Legal requirement 1994 EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 94/62/EC This directive regulates the heavy metal content of, and recovery of any packaging put on the market. Implemented in Ireland through the Waste Management (Packaging) Regulations S.I. No. 61 of 2003 as amended by the Waste Management (Packaging) (Amendment) Regulations S.I. No. 871 of 2004. While it should be noted the directive is under review at European level, the legislation is now well developed in Ireland with waste recovery schemes like REPAK in place. Legal requirement 2007 Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) REACH came into force in 2007 with the aim to ensure a high level of protection of human health and the environment from the risks that can be posed by chemicals, the promotion of alternative test methods, the free circulation of substances on the internal market and enhancing competitiveness and innovation (European commission, 2012f). Manufacturers have to register each substance, assess the risks it poses and pass on the safety information to downstream users. Legal requirement 2006 Batteries Directive Directive 2006/66/EC prohibits placing certain batteries and accumulators with mercury or cadmium content above a fixed threshold on the market and promotes a high rate of collection and recycling of waste batteries and accumulators. The aim is the reduction of hazardous substances (mercury, cadmium and lead) dumped in the environment (European commission, 2012g). Standards Voluntary 1997 revised 2000 and 2006 Life cycle assessment: ISO 14040/44 When concerned with the environmental impact of a new or existing product, it may well be beneficial to carryout a complete life cycle assessment. In such a case you would look to the ISO 14040 certificate. It evaluates the products LCA framework and is intended to make reliable and reusable assessments. It endeavours to provide a clear overview of the findings to stakeholders, including those who have limited knowledge of life cycle assessment. The specific requirements and guidelines for LCAs are in ISO 14044. Voluntary 2001 Environmental site assessment: ISO 14015 This International Standard provides guidance on how to conduct an Environmental assessment of sites and organizations (EASO) through a systematic process of identifying environmental aspects and environmental issues and determining, if appropriate, their business consequences. Voluntary ISO 14020 1998 rev 2000 ISO 14024 1999 ISO 14025 2000 rev 2006 Environmental product declaration (EPD), Labelling: ISO 14020/24/25 ISO 14020/24/25 will help you label your product. It includes quantified data which helps ensure environmental data published is of a certain quality. These product labels are built upon the Life Cycle Assessment which means the information generated is relevant, verified and comparable. Voluntary 1999 Environmental Performance Evaluation: ISO 14031 When you dont require a certificate and just want to measure your environmental performance, this document gives guidance on environmental performance evaluation. It provides management with reliable and verifiable information on an ongoing basis through its Plan-Do-Check-Act system (PCDA). Voluntary 2002 Integrating environmental aspects into product design and development: ISO 14062 Guidance standard providing generic instruction on how to incorporate environmental criteria into product design and development. It can act as a reminder or a checklist and is applicable to all industry sectors. Other industry sectors have developed similar standards including:- Standard ECMA 341, Environmental design considerations for electronic products developed by ECMA International. EN/BSI 13420:2000 Packaging Requirements for packaging recovery by material recycling. BS/EN 13193:2000 Packaging and the environment Terminology. Voluntary 2006 Impact on Climate Change: ISO 14064 ISO 14064-1:2006 facilitates quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and reductions. It provides stakeholders with an integrated set of tools to achieve their objectives and it enables participation in emissions trading schemes using a globally recognised standard. Voluntary/ Under construction N/A Product Carbon Footprint: ISO 14067 Strives to standardize the maze of product carbon footprint approaches. Voluntary/ Under construction N/A Water Footprint: ISO 14046 Aims to establish harmonized metrics for water footprints. Other Voluntary 2008 GHG Protocol Product Standard This is a product life cycle accounting and reporting standard developed by the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD). This standard is to a large extent in compliance with ISO 14040/44, except it is explicitly focused on greenhouse gas accounting.

Information security Essay

The secrets of an organization are protected from competitors. Vital information to a business is protected from competitors by establishing a strong system of internal controls. Protecting the information relating to the operations of a business reduces losses to the business. Poor information security practices can creates a lot of costs to the business through; data recovery costs, loss of competitive advantage, cost of investigations, and others. The business builds confidence among the stakeholders when it protects its information. The use of technology has increased many risks upon the protection of information of a business. Organizations provide their employees about the guidelines to be followed to protect the information of the business (Chan, Woon & Kankanhalli, n. d. ). Issues relating to information security Many businesses have trade secrets which need to be protected from their competitors. If the trade secrets are stolen, the business may incur losses in terms of competitive disadvantages in the marketplace. The increase in competition in the global business has increased the need to protect information which may be used to out-compete a business. The international law protects the copyrights of each business and gives the authors of original information the exclusive right to use the information. The long term survival of the business in the market depends on the ability to withhold confidential information. Growth and expansion strategies are based on the ability to protect confidential business information. The management should determine which information is important to them and place strict measures to protect it (Chan, Woon & Kankanhalli, n. d. ). The increase in the use of technology has resulted into exposure of internal information about a business to many risks. The computing technology has created information risks which force the management to introduce systems which ensure the protection of information. â€Å"In the recent years, organizations have increased spending on both physical and IT security technologies,† (Chan, Woon & Kankanhalli, n. d. , pp. 3). However, several security incidences continue to occur despite the implementation of the security technologies. The internal security issues are done by the employees when they have errors in their operations or they deliberately misuse the information of the organization. Most of the external threats an organization encounters are linked to the internal staff (College of Education n. d). To protect the information contained in the internet and computers, an organization should use passwords. The passwords should be known to the concerned individuals in the organization and should be changed regularly to ensure safety of the data. The information should be under the control of a responsible person and these individuals should be answerable to the management of the organization. Access to the confidential information should be allowed to a limited number of employees (College of Education. n. d. ). The management should educate its employees about security issues of the data they handle. Some employees may not have knowledge about the confidential information of an organization and they may expose it to competitors without knowing. The use of such information should be limited to the organizational activities and should be protected against competitors. Employees should be taught how to use the passwords to ensure information security. The emails of the company should be provided with strong passwords to ensure no hackers can access information (Tenby, 2002). The government has regulated some businesses and industries which have great influence to the nation by regulating the use of information. The regulations depend on the nature of the institution and its role in the economy. For example, financial institutions and healthcare companies have been regulated since their contribution to the economy affects many sectors. Laws are established to protect the interests of the organization and to ensure the business environment is conducted in a fair manner (McConnell & Banks). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act was established in 2002 to regulate the protection of businesses as well as improving corporate governance. The Act was introduced to prevent the misuse of corporate information by the professionals especially the auditors, accountants and the managers. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was created to address the high rate of failure by publicized businesses, restatement of financial statements and the corporate improprieties. The act requires the management to be responsible for ensuring adequate internal control measures are in operation within the organization. The auditors should report about the effectiveness of the internal controls during the annual audit reporting. The management should introduce internal controls which protect the information of the business as well as ensuring the professional activities are implemented successfully (McConnell & Banks). Conclusion Information security is of great importance to the business since it prevents competition from other businesses in the market as well as preventing the misuse of information by the employees. Technology has increased the risks associated with the use of information. A large number of frauds committed in the organization are initiated by the internal staff of the organization. The management should provide a system of accountability where the staff should be responsible for the information provided to them. The management should ensure the employees have adequate knowledge about protecting the information of the organization.

Social Media Ads

Many social media sites display multiple advertisements such as banner ads, behavior ads (ads that target people on the basis of their Web-browsing behavior), and demographic-based ads (ads that target people on the basis of a specifc factor such as age, gender, education, marital status, etc) that infuence not only the buying tendencies of preadolescents and adolescents but also their views of what is normal. All three regions viz. Australia and New Zealand, Asia and Rest of the World show high levels of switching news consumption to traditional news mediums than continuing news consumption on SBNs. The choice between online and traditional news media is also mediated by a person's level of comfort with technology (Althaus ; Tewksbury, 2000) as well as ease of use of the technology (Venkatesh, et al., 2003). Therefore, for this group, the opportunity costs associated with adopting and using SBNs (e.g. accessing the network, navigation skills, and computer skills) is relatively high causing them to potentially devalue the controls and advantages that SBNs provide. On the other hand, this group also exercise a degree of media selectivity (Yuan, 2011) based on their beliefs about various media attributes such as convenience or personal preferences (Ahlers, 2006; Althaus ; Tewksbury, 2000) for consuming news by combining different news media's (e.g. SBNs, television) (Yuan, 2011). Past studies researching news consumption through traditional news media show that individuals with a high need for information increasingly choose information-rich media (Althaus & Tewksbury, 2000; Dutta-Bergman, 2004). Thus, the relative advantage of SBNs evidenced through the immediacy and timeliness of news (media attributes) and users providing a variety of content in SBNs are highly appealing factors for these information seekers in continuing their news consumption on SBNs. Besides, SBNs also expose individuals in this group to news that they otherwise might not get from traditional news media (Pew Research Center, 2013). Thus, for instance, they are more likely to follow celebrities on Twitter or Facebook (viz. user influence), which

What Was the Silla Kingdom

The Silla Kingdom was one of Koreas Three Kingdoms, along with the Baekje  Kingdom and Goguryeo. Silla was based in the southeast of the Korean Peninsula, while Baekje controlled the southwest, and Goguryeo the north. Name The name Silla (pronounced Shilla) may have originally been closer to  Seoya-beol  or  Seora-beol. This name appears in records of the  Yamato  Japanese and the Jurchens, as well as ancient Korean documents. Japanese sources name the people of Silla as the  Shiragi, while the Jurchens or Manchus refer to them as  Solho. Silla was founded in 57 BCE by King Park Hyeokgeose. Legend tells that Park hatched out of an egg that was laid by a gyeryong, or chicken-dragon.  Interestingly, he is considered the progenitor of all Koreans with the family name Park. For most of its history, however, the kingdom was ruled by members of the Gyeongju branch of the Kim family.    Brief History As mentioned above, the Silla Kingdom was founded in 57 BCE. It would survive for nearly 992 years, making it one of the longest sustained dynasties in human history. However, as mentioned above, the dynasty was actually ruled by members of three different families in the early centuries of the Silla Kingdom - the Parks, then the Seoks, and finally the Kims. The Kim family held power for more than 600 years, though, so it still qualifies as one of the longest known dynasties. Silla began its rise as simply the most powerful city-state in a local confederation. Threatened by the rising power of Baekje, just to its west, and also by Japan to the south and east, Silla formed an alliance with Goguryeo in the late 300s CE. Soon, though, Goguryeo began to seize more and more territory to its south, establishing a new capital at Pyongyang in 427, and posing a growing threat to Silla itself.   Silla switched alliances, joining with Baekje to attempt to hold off the expansionist Goguryeo. By the 500s, early Silla had grown into a proper kingdom.   It formally adopted Buddhism as its state religion in 527. Together with its ally Baekje, Silla pushed Goguryeo north out of the area around the Han River (now Seoul). It went on to break the more than century-long alliance with Baekje in 553, grabbing control of the Han River region. Silla would then annex the Gaya Confederacy in 562. One of the most notable features of the Silla state at this time was the reign of women, including the famous Queen Seondeok (r. 632-647) and her successor, Queen Jindeok (r. 647-654). They were crowned as ruling queens because there were no surviving males of the highest bone rank, known as  seonggol  or sacred bone. This means that they had royal ancestors on both sides of their family.    After the death of Queen Jindeok,  seonggol  rulers were extinct, so King Muyeol was placed on the throne in 654 even though he was only of the  jingol  or true bone caste. This meant that his family tree included only royalty on one side, but royalty mingled with nobility on the other. Whatever his ancestry, King Muyeol formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty in China, and in 660 he conquered Baekje. His successor, King Munmu, conquered Goguryeo in 668, bringing nearly the entire Korean Peninsula under Silla domination. From this point forward, the Silla Kingdom is known as Unified Silla or Later Silla. Among the many accomplishments of the Unified Silla Kingdom is the first known example of printing. A Buddhist sutra, produced by woodblock printing, has been discovered at the Bulguksa Temple. It was printed in 751 CE and is the earliest printed document ever found. Beginning in the 800s, Silla fell into a decline.   Increasingly powerful nobles threatened the power of the kings, and military rebellions centered in the old strongholds of the Baekje and Goguryeo kingdoms challenged Silla authority. Finally, in 935, the last king of Unified Silla surrendered to the emerging Goryeo Kingdom to the north. Still Visible Today The former Silla capital city of Gyeongju still features impressive historical sites from this ancient period. Among the most popular are the Bulguksa Temple, Seokguram Grotto with its stone Buddha figure, the Tumuli Park featuring the burial mounds of Silla kings, and the Cheomseongdae astronomical observatory.